To the page “Scientific works”
Sergey Zagraevsky
Jury Dolgoruky and ancient Russian white stone architecture
Published in Russian: Çàãðàåâñêèé Ñ.Â. Þðèé Äîëãîðóêèé è äðåâíåðóññêîå áåëîêàìåííîå çîä÷åñòâî. M.: Àëåâ-Â, 2001. ISBN 5-94025-014-9
Chapter I. White stone and brick
Chapter II. Galich, Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria
Chapter III. Suzdal masters and Romanesque
Chapter IV. “The limit of reliability”
Chapter V. Sculpture decoration
Chapter II.
Galich, Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria
Attention!
The following text
was translated from Russian original by the computer program
and has not yet been
edited.
So it can be used
only for general introduction.
I
Let short Subtotal: no economy, no aesthetics, no
random factors do not explain the transition Yuri Dolgoruky in the middle of
the XII century white-stone building. Functional sense, as we saw in paragraph
9 main 1, in white stone was not there: brick churches across
Therefore, to answer the question why in Suzdal
began construction of white stone, we must continue our historical and
motivational modeling era.
But first of all it is necessary to consider the
version, followed by N.N. Voronin78 and PA Rappoport79-
invitation Yuri Dolgoruky cooperative masters of Galich.
This version can be summarized as follows: in
1152 by Yuri Dolgoruky came Guild masters, previously constructed in the
Galician land, whose Prince vladimirka Volodarevich Dolgoruky was an ally in
the fight against Izyaslav Mstislavich. Yuri their collectives had, since the
last churches in Suzdal was built in Monomakh, and took Galicia team together
with the technology of building of white stone used in Galich80.
Now this view is shared by M. ioannisyan,
specifying that the arrival of Galician artists took place in the late forties
XII century81.
In support of the Galician version, which could
be described as dominant in the modern history of the Vladimir-Suzdal
architecture, there are many arguments, their most of which is shown in studies
M. ioannisyan. For brevity, only here they are: the similarity of building
materials, masonry walls and vaults of detail of the plan, foundations and
sculptural decoration82. "For," says even such subtleties
as the absence of Suzdal and Galician churches middle of XII century resonator
holes - in the rest of Russia, they were83.
This leads researchers to believe that to Yuri
Dolgoruky in the late forties-early fifties XII century came the team of
Galich.
Let's Galytsky version of" detail.
II
Look, what are the arguments in favor of arrival
in Suzdal Galician cooperative.
First, that the Vladimir Galitsky and Yuri
Dolgoruky were allies.
Secondly, what and Suzdal, Galicia and temples
belong to a cross type.
Third, the similarity of construction equipment
Suzdal and Galician churches84.
The base argument Voronin was white stone
assumption Cathedral in Galicia, similar to the churches of Suzdal land plan,
masonry, solution and foundations85. For the first time this Church
was mentioned in the Chronicles in connection with the death of Yaroslav
Osmomysl (son vladimirka Galician) in 1187, and N.N. Voronin referred his
erection to 1157, linking it with the Agency this year Galician eparchy. This
Cathedral was decorated with sculptures zooantropomorfnogo type86.
N.N. Voronin also mentioned the Church of our
Saviour in Galicia, built before 115287 and similar to
Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Pereslavl88.
All this has allowed NN Voronin very
categorically stated: "All these similarities do not leave doubts that the
master came from Galicia"89.
But doubts, despite the enormous prestige
Voronin, still remain. First, the Dating of the assumption Cathedral in Galicia
1157 year is very rough. Secondly, how could the master of the assumption
Cathedral, even if it was built in 1157, go to the jury in 1152? Thirdly,
zooantropomorfnogo type in any Church Yuri no - he only appeared in Andrew
Bogoliubsky, not before the end of the fifties and early sixties.
M. ioannisyan makes clear, as the basic evidence
of the impact of Galich and coming out cooperative masters he leads not the
Cathedral of the assumption, and the Church of our Saviour, similar to the temple
Yuri not only plan, construction technology and decor, but also by sizes (Fig.
5).
Fig. 5. Plans Galician and Suzdal churches (Omiani):
1 - the Church of St. John in
Przemysl;
2 - the Church in Zvenigorod;
3 - the Church of our Saviour in
Galich;
4 - the Church on the
"Winterised";
5 - Transfiguration Cathedral in
Zvenigorod;
6 - the Church of Boris and Gleb in
Kideksha;
7 - the Church of St. George in
Vladimir;
8 - the Church of deposition of the
robe on the Golden gate in Vladimir.
M. ioannisyanom also mentions the Church of St.
John in Przemysl, related to 1119-1124 years90, from which only the
foundations, technique (but not in the plan and not the size) is similar to the
construction of Galich and Suzdal fifties.
But just look at the plan of the Church of St.
John (Fig. 5)to understand that she could not serve as a model for Dolgoruky,
and generally very low probability of its construction in white-engineering -
very thin walls and pillars compared with spans of the vaults. Perhaps it was a
brick. It is possible (and likely)that it was built of stone, but is covered
with wood, like many Western European churches91.
From the temple in Zvenigorod Galitsky got
nothing left but a similar technique masonry foundations. But we see the plan
(Fig. 5), not only totally unlike Dolgoruky, but in question in a temple
belonging to the cross type. Two pillars (Fig. 5 dashed), M. ioannisyanom
entered in the reconstruction, in order to present the Church as the cross
until it finds archaeological evidence - at least in the form of remains of the
foundations.
M. ioannisyan puts Zvenigorodsky temple in the
time between the erection of John in Przemysl, and our Saviour in Galich92
making conclusion about the work on all three buildings of the same building
the farm. But this conclusion can hardly be considered quite reasonable: the
difference between the plans and the size of the temples too great, with no
stable trends we see. In activity of one artel of artists who worked on one of
the Prince - vladimirka of Volodarevich, at least, would have to be traced to a
single logic.
But even leaving aside the controversial Galician
buildings (the assumption Cathedral in Galicia, churches in Przemysl and
Zvenigorod), based simply on the fact that the Church of our Saviour in Galich
built shortly before the temples in Pereslavl and Kideksha (not later 1152) and
largely with them similar93anyway about the work in Galicia and
Suzdal same building the farm remain serious doubts.
After all, we come to yet another contradiction -
as one team managed a year to build a temple? In the chronicle under 1152
referred Pereslavl, Kideksha, Yuriev-Polskiy, Church or chapel of our Saviour
in Suzdal, the Church of St. George in the yard Dolgoruky in Vladimir94.
Even if we accept the version of NN Voronin that
in 1152 Dolgoruky built only three temples95, or M. ioannisyan -
that only two (it dates St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polish 1148-1151 years96),
it is still one of the farm is too much. Besides, she had to finish (or even
fully constructed) Church of our Saviour in Galicia.
But in the case with a large "stretch"
(referring to the Church of the Saviour in Galicia to the mid-forties, and the
Cathedral in Pereslavl - closer to 115797) to allow to all
construction sites Dolgoruky work the same farm, there will be no less serious
doubts.
Since then, according to Rappoport, the same gang
engaged in the construction and Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest98.
M. ioannisyan, based on the technique of laying the Foundation, believes that
the recent building of this group of artists were the Golden gate in Vladimir99.
But Omiani, and on PA Rappaport it turns out that
this Association worked for about half a century (or 1120-ies by 1160-e in
lesser Poland100, Galich and Suzdal, or 1150 x on 1190-e - only in
Galicia and Suzdal).
So really, if this cooperative lesser or Galician
origin for half a century has not appeared any competitors?
And is it not strange that the unprecedented
active and fruitful work of such "superarteli" found no reflection in
the annals? About masters Yuri't say anything at all, but about the masters of
Andrey (not all, but more on that later) it is known that they were "of
all lands"101, Vsevolod - that he who is not looking masters
from the Germans, but used the wizards from the clergy of the Holy virgin and
of his"102. And in PA Rappaport turns out that all this time
there was only one team.
All this is, indeed, very strange, and we have to
digress from our main topic, and try to understand: is it so hard to tie our
analysis to the work of a building the farm and track the conversions?
III
Let's start with the fact that M. ioannisyan
about the same Polish-Galician-Suzdal cooperative makes a reservation, that in
Poland this gang, perhaps, was free, and so Prince Volodar (father vladimirka)
in 1110-ies I managed to get, in spite of hostile relations with the Polish Prince103.
But the question is whether this team was so free
not only from the "working relationship" with the Polish Prince, but
also from civil obligations in respect of the latter that went to the enemy?
Why the Polish government, at least, did not return the masters ago, and as a
maximum, not executed them for treason?
It is one thing the transition from Prince to
Prince icon painter, jeweler or a sculptor with a pair of apprentices (they
could pass unnoticed under the guise of a wandering monks), and another thing -
the whole building cooperative. It's not three or four people, and much more.
Let's at least a rough estimate of how many
artists could include cooperative.
This calculation was made by p. Rappaport.
Referring to page 325 the first volume of labour Voronin, "Architecture of
North-Eastern Russia", he wrote that the Church of the Intercession on the
Nerl river was built about 30 masons. Adding here the carpenters, roofers,
moulders and obzhigalschikov brick (in the case of a brick building) and
"administrative and managerial personnel, he received the average size of
the farm from 30 to 40 people104.
Unfortunately, in this case the reference
Rappoport on the classic work Voronin is not entirely justified, because the
number of craftsmen who built the Church of the Intercession, there is nothing
to say. In Voronin described already used us the calculation of labour input in
person-days, and not referring to the whole building, but only to break down
and processing of white stone105.
Apparently, PA Rappoport, without considering the
last divided the total Voronin (7307 person-days) at 200-250 days, got about 30
people and announced their master-masons. But those unaccounted for were
masters who laid the walls, vaults and foundations, preparing lime and perform
other work listed in our calculation of the overall complexity of the
white-stone building (see item 3 of the Annex). As the complexity of these
works is 3723 people-DN.
Keeping p. A. Rappoport calculations with
reference to a book Voronin, "Architecture of North-Eastern Russia",
on the basis of two construction seasons, also seems to be not quite correct -
the Church of the Intercession was built in one year"106and the
construction season, N.N. Voronin, lasted for 168 days107.
So let's calculate the number of masters, members
of the gang, using our estimates of labor carried out in accordance with the
research Voronin (see Annex):
(7307 + 3723) : 168 = 65 people.
Adding here "administrative and managerial
personnel and supervisors breaking, processing and transportation of white
stone (or moulders and obzhigalschikov brick), we obtain the average number of
building the farm from 70 to 80 people.
Now let's ask, could the "wandering"108
artel - 70-80 masters with their wives and children (and this is 150-200
persons) - to move huge Tabor from Prince to Prince around the country (or
rather, by country), where continuous wars.
First of all note that this is not about the
Gypsies, and even the merchants, and of highly skilled specialists, who in all
times was a great value. "At that time, artists are often captured during
various military campaigns, because they were considered quite expensive and
valuable commodities (VP Vygolov)109.
And as any transit of goods through independent
portions rigidly controlled (remember the adage feudal times - "what with
who fell, they lost), passing a construction team of any Prince or Governor
could stop and get to work on yourself. And in the event of war - even destroy,
to prevent the enemy to build temples and fortifications.
In the West within a relatively unified
"Holy Roman Empire" - wandering the farm lay masons appeared only at
the end of XI century and is still their movement was hampered by the large
number of internal borders110. And here we see the camp of 200-250
people, which goes between the independent, often hostile to each other
principalities, and even the warring States.
Therefore, if we talk about schemas collectives
provided by N.N. Voronin111 and p. A. Rappoport112 (Fig.
6), it is not so simple, as shown in these diagrams.
Fig. 6. Navigation scheme and the
work of building collectives (PA Rappaport).
For example, the arrival of building the farm
vladimirka Galitskogo to Yuri Dolgoruky in the theory was possible - princes
were allies.
But the fact that this Association was able to
pass unnoticed through the chain of hostile Yuri principalities, already
unlikely.
And if to assume good (or with minimum losses.
the arrival of the farm, in Suzdal, it turns out that in 1152 it
"multiplied" on several temples, built almost simultaneously (at
least in Pereslavl, Kideksha and Yuriev-Polsky). Therefore, it is not one, but
several collectives, and then all further scheme looks untenable.
We said in paragraph 2 of this Chapter that M.
ioannisyan to address the latter problem delays the start of the construction
of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polish for four or five years ago from 1152113.
But then we need to move away, respectively, and
the inception of the city of Yuriev-Polsky, dezavuiruya message Printing
chronicle under 1152 not only the churches, but also in respect of fortresses.
Remember this is important evidence chronicler
Rostov - contemporary Dolgoruky114: "At the same time,
George Duke in Suzdal be, and wtvyrz him God razumniy eyes on the Church
building, and many of the Church of postavila on Suzdalskoe the country and
placed the Church of stone on the Nerl, the Holy Martyr Boris and Gleb, and the
Holy Saviour in Suzdal, and of the Holy St George in Volodimira stone, and
Pereaslavl hail transferred from Klemania, and founded a large hail, and the
stone Church in it there the Holy Saviour, and do Yu books and mommy wondrous
saints, and Gergev founded the castle and the Church there the stone Holy
Martyr St George"115.
Of course, we follow NN Voronin and M.
ioannisyanom can assume that the chronicler just "summarized"
Dolgoruky started in 1152 (or even in 1148) and completed in 1157116.
But in the beginning of the quoted message chronicler makes sense accent on the
date of the buildings: "at the same time (in 1152 - SZ) George Duke in
Suzdal be". Indeed, Yuri about three years - from 1149 to 1151 - was in
southern Russia and returned to the Suzdal region only at the junction 1151 and
1152,117.
Therefore, we find ourselves faced with the
choice of one of two mutually contradictory options: message Printing record
and the results compiled by N.N. Voronin, p. A. Rappoport and M. ioannisyanom
schemes transition collectives.
Given the ambiguous move through several warring
principalities huge Tabor builders, I propose to stand on the side of Rostov
chronicler and to date all listed Dolgoruky 1152, thus negating the
possibility of coming to Yuri artel of Galich.
Soon we will see that the use of local personnel
simultaneous construction of several points, it's quite possible - unless, of
course, allowed resources. And in the last two years after Yuri stay in Kiev
was hardly afford - not for nothing Kiev treated him as greedy118.
On our position regarding the Dating of buildings
Yuri 1152 can influence the process and stored in the State Hermitage antimins
(confirming the correspondence of the consecration of Archbishop of"
Nifont at Prince George in 1148 certain "the altar of St. George"119).
Arguments E.E. Golubinsky against membership of
corporal Novgorod Bishop Nifont (related to the absence in the middle of the
XII century practice of sending corporal)120 we can add that Nifont
was Archbishop. Archdiocese of Novgorod was founded only in 1165121and
hardly Nifont voluntarily assumed the new title, in gross violation of Church
discipline.
Of course, there is the theoretical possibility
"personal" award Archbishop Nifont dignity Patriarch, but it would be
a serious beyond Orthodox Church practices: the Archbishop and Metropolitan of
- the title is not personal, and linked (at least nominally) arhipastyrskim in
the region where ever was established by the Archbishop or Metropolitan. So,
since 1148 there was no decision of the Patriarch on the establishment in the
Novgorod Archdiocese, Niphon had no right to be called the Archbishop of
Novgorod. 122 cannot be dated earlier 1549, when the Bishop of
Novgorod, was canonized.
But suppose it had a personal award (or even
unauthorized appropriation) Archbishop of title and, indeed, corporal 1148 was
sent Nifont. But then we have no right to assume that the corporal belonged to
any of the large stone churches: in 1148 Niphon was in Suzdal123and
most likely it would be his personal presence at this event as a bookmark
Dolgoruky first white-stone Church.
And because Nifont only sent corporal, he could
talk about one of the many wooden churches dedicated to St. George. For
example, on the throne of St. George yard of Yuri Dolgoruky in Vladimir: there
certainly was a wooden Church, preceded the stone built, as we have just seen,
in 1152.
IV
Thus, Dating on the basis of reports Rostov
chronicler of all the buildings Yuri 1152, we refuse to release the arrival to
Suzdal Galician construction cooperative.
Of course, we in no case does not call into
question the potential usefulness of developing a navigation scheme masters is
one of the possible solutions to the issues of Dating and authorship of the
monuments. Moreover, it is impossible not to admit that if the comprehensive
approach (taking into account the issues and the policy and economy, and
architecture and construction) preparation of schemes collectives has the full
right to claim the status of an independent scientific discipline within the
history of architecture.
But I offer in our study on the possibility to
follow "Occam's razor"124 and do not multiply entities
beyond necessity". And soon we will see that in the analysis of any period
of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture it is possible to do without mapping
collectives.
Undoubtedly, "single" master of the
Prince to Prince crossed often. But, as we have shown, the process of
transition of the whole building cooperative was very cumbersome, and in the
feudal and actual civil war that could occur as a rare exception, not the rule.
Consequently, the collectives could happen only
"officially" - between the principalities associated allied
relations, pre-arranged "through diplomatic channels", the allocation
masters when moving the appropriate protection, with the guarantees of a fair
wage and household settle in a new place - because it was not a feudal
dependent peasants, but of the free urban artisans.
Even within a single Principality transfer of an
entire farm from city to city was fraught with domestic difficulties. Urban
artisans - not the terrorists involved military discipline.
Thus, the organization of transition of the farm
demanded great organizational effort and expense of the "sponsor" of
the Prince.
Hence, we may make a General observation: where
the requirements for the timing and quality of construction allowed to use the
local people, the princes, as a rule, preferred this option.
We emphasize that we are talking primarily about
the "ordinary" builders (i.e. the vast majority artel). Architects,
painters, jewelers and other unique and highly specialized professionals to go
from Prince to Prince and from town to town as often as you wish.
Against pre-emptive use in the construction of
local personnel may be challenged associated with the fact that after the
construction of the building builders like is nothing to do, and all they have
to move to a new construction site, even if in a different city or the
Principality.
But, for example, white-stone building Suzdal
land was a break from 1165 to 1185 years - as the master lived without orders
for 20 years?
On this subject, you can nominate any
assumptions, up to the fact that the team that worked Andrei Bogolyubsky, after
his death has left for limits of Russia, then in 10 years back and continued
the work of Vsevolod. But we are in compliance with the "Occam's
razor" can give the most simple and plausible explanation: when the order
was not, local craftsmen were engaged in any handicraft (first of all
carpenters), and even peasant labour. Moreover, the construction could not be
their primary qualification.
For example, N.N. Voronin brought a contract for
the demolition and construction of new Church of St. George in Vladimir,
concluded in 1783 with the peasants of the village Surany125.
Another typical example is of a higher social
stratum", but closer to the time Dolgoruky: architect (at least, the
organizer of construction) VD Yermolin was one of the largest merchants
his time126.
And when you consider that in the conditions of
feudal relations of the XII century builders to work more often complained of
is not money, but the earth127 then everything falls into place.
Perhaps the architects and highly skilled masters even formed a class a
"service landowners" (noblemen128) along with the
"near" the Prince's retinue, but "ordinary" builders are
unlikely to become the nobility is not the level. Most likely, they were and
remained urban artisans or peasants, and work on the construction gave them the
opportunity to get own land or increase existing ones.
With regard to the qualification of
"ordinary" construction, any Russian peasant and nowadays is able to
perform construction work on a very wide profile, especially under the guidance
of highly skilled craftsmen.
And not only the farmer. For example, Kavelmaher
came in the late fifties of the twentieth-century restoration the site
belokamenschikom no experience of such work, was able independently to hew
wrought stones in a month without any "master instructor", just
exchanging experience with colleagues129.
With regard to the most difficult part of
construction - erection of arches and drums - this work was carried out on the
wooden wheel and formwork130. Consequently, the main work was a
carpenter, and the experience of such work in the ubiquitous wooden
building in the XII century was enormous.
And the sails (or Tromp) could put one master
qualifications - work is fine, but the volume is small.
And let's not forget that in every city, in
addition to temples and fortifications were built a lot of wooden and often
brick constructions of a civil nature131 so a necessity even for the
professional Builder to move from city to city, and even of the Principality in
the Principality, has arisen not as a rule, and as an exception.
Yes, and the invitation of skilled craftsmen was
an extraordinary event, and it is usually found reflection in Chronicles
(remember masters of all lands" Bogolyubsky and important reservation
vsevolodova chronicler of that Big Nest was not looking for "painters from
the German"). Especially it covered such events in Europe132.
In chapters 3-4 we will be able repeatedly to
illustrate the fact that the size and the historical fate of Vladimir-Suzdal
and early Moscow white stone churches led the work is local construction
personnel.
V
But still remember that in the Chronicles about
the masters of Yuri Dolgoruky does not say anything. Hence, we may assume that
someone from Galich in Suzdal in the late forties - early fifties XII century,
after all, was invited.
Let this was not a construction team (as we have
seen, its passage through the chain of hostile principalities and
"reproduction" in Pereslavl, Kideksha, Vladimir and St. George is
doubtful), but the architect and some of the most professional
("elders") masters could go from Galicia to Yuri and in 1152 to
organize simultaneous construction of several points, using local personnel,
guiding them and even independently performing especially important works. 133.
In this case, we can even assume that
simultaneously with temples Dolgoruky was still under construction and the
Church of our Saviour in Galich - there could well be one of the assistants of
the architect (or one of the "older" masters)to oversee the work.
And since the plan, the size and equipment
construction was determined primarily architect (of course, in accordance with
the requirements of the customer - Prince or Bishop), the similarity of the
temples Galich and Suzdal seem to find a satisfactory explanation.
Such variant is possible also: the unity of the
artistic and architectural tastes princes led to the unity of style and
technology of construction, which was achieved with a constant exchange of
experience between architects and Yuri vladimirka.
Therefore, the expression "the coming
masters of Galich in Suzdal" without prejudice to our study may be
replaced by an "architectural influence of Galich in Suzdal. And this
impact could be in the form and the arrival of artists, architects and
invitations, and "exchange of experience".
In this connection, let's see, could there be an
architectural influence of Galich in Suzdal.
In theory, of course, could have, but practice
proves the opposite.
VI
Prince Vladimir Galitsky was as Dolgoruky, a
descendant of Yaroslav the Wise, but a generation younger (father vladimirka,
Volodar Rostislavich, was the grandson of Yaroslav, and his father George,
Vladimir Monomakh, the grandson). In the scope of the Galician land vladimirka
Volodarevich was a key figure134but he never claimed to be the Grand
Duchy of Kiev, and could not claim - "Prince's ladder135 did
not give him any chance.
In 1139, the Vladimir Galitsky was still an ally
of Izyaslav mstislavovitch136. In 1143 he was in Alliance with the
Hungarians went to the battlefield against the combined armies of Slava (elder
brother of George), the ol'govichi and his former ally Izyaslav, but managed to
make peace137. In 1146 formed a similar situation, only the army
against Galic was led by the great Prince Vsevolod ol'govich (fortunately for
vladimirka, seriously ill during the siege of Zvenigorod and soon died138.
The Union Yuri and vladimirka shape only in 1149,
when the latter helped Dolgoruky capture Kiev. But in 1151 vladimirka very
unflattering expressed to the Yuri and his eldest son Andrey139 and
returned to Galich. In the siege of Kiev, which were in the same year Dolgoruky
and the ol'govichi, he was not involved. Then he went to the help of its
allies, but to learn about their defeat in Kiev, returned back140.
In 1152 his land looted Hungarians141.
On this and ran short, and not very close
Alliance Dolgoruky and vladimirka - the more they did not fight together.
Vladimirka Volodarevich died in 1153, and in
Galicia began his reign of his son Yaroslav Osmomysl. In the same year the army
last defeated Izyaslav Mstislavich, but soon went to Kiev142.
In 1155 Dolgoruky, finally, became the Grand
Duke. A sample of his relationship with Osmomysl leads Rybakov: "at the
same Durgi the Pauwels (my italics - SZ) sati his Yaroslav Galichskoe to
go..."143
After the death of Dolgoruky Osmomysl in 1158
participated in the capture of Kiev and inviting reign Rostislav of Smolensk,
and then he disappeared from the Russian political scene, and "quiet"
rules in Galicia until his death in 1187144. After that, under the
blows of the Hungarians began to fall in Galicia, which in the beginning of the
XIII century is, in the words nm Karamzin, "shame disorder"145.
And by 1387 Galician-Volyn land were fully occupied Poland146.
Now you might ask: could the Vladimir, one of the
princes, so to affect Dolgoruky, candidate for the Kyiv table, and even more on
his successor, Grand Duke Andrei, Vsevolod and many others, - that during the past
three hundred years old building in the North-Eastern Russia were only
conducted in Galician, an order of magnitude more expensive technique?
Of course not. Moreover, at the junction of the
forties and fifties, except vladimirka Galitsky, a Dolgoruky was ally, standing
on the top "of the Prince's ladder" - Svyatoslav Olgovich Chernigov147.
Yuri vassals during the struggle for Kiev were Ryazan and Murom princes148.
So why in the Suzdal not affected, for example, Chernihiv - the second city in
Russia after Kiev? Or, at least, Ryazan and Murom?
And if, as written Voronin149 and O.M.
ioannisian150 at Dolgoruky was not their masters, and he was forced
to be content with a team of Galich, then surely it could not take masters from
Kiev, where the actual rules in 1149-1151 years? And if he for some reason is
not found (or not managed to find) artists in Kiev, surely he could not invite
masters (at least, architect) not from the vladimirka, and from the ol'govichi
and to use cheaper and technological brick technique?
And finally, if the jury for some reasons unknown
to us, he was forced to be content with a team of Galich, who owned only white
stone technique, then why does he or his descendants at the first opportunity
not passed onto a brick, and continued building of white stone, three hundred
years?
VII
N.N. Voronin as an argument in favor of influence
Galich led Galician city names, founded by Yuri Dolgoruky - Zvenigorod,
Przemysl, Gorodets and Mikulin151.
But even if the version on the basis of these cities
Yuri be considered confirmed (doubted himself N. Voronin), it is still
Dolgoruky gave Galician the names of small fortresses and cities with the stone
building he called Pereslavl and Yuriev (the latter, most likely, not after
himself, and in honor of a small but meaningful southern Russian city, which
had their Bishop152). Even the river they were named in Pereslavl
and in Kiev-Trubezh and Lybid.
Mass reproduction of Suzdal
"indigenous" Russian names was a logical consequence started Yuri and
completed by Vsevolod process of transferring the great Prince on the
North-East, and this tradition began in Monomakh (Volyn Vladimir Vladimir
Zalessky) and in pre-Mongol times is not interrupted. For example, the
chroniclers emphasized that Andrey Bogolyubovo was built at the same distance
from Vladimir, as Vyshgorod near Kiev153.
And Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod
and, most characteristically, Galich Merskiy (Kostroma)154.
In the beginning of XIII century "radical" Galich just was a
"shame disorder", and talk about his influence on his grandson
Dolgoruky, of course, is not necessary.
And similarly, we cannot talk about any
significant impact of Galich and during the reign of Yuri Dolgoruky, and during
the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky. The possibility of voluntary action on the
part of the latter (for example, a particularly close personal friendship and
Yuri vladimirka or Osmomysl and Andrew) we considered in paragraph 8 1 main and
saw that this explanation cannot be considered satisfactory.
Therefore, we are forced to abandon the
version of the architectural influence of Galich in Suzdal.
One might say the opposite effect - Suzdal in
Galich, and this version, except for seniority Suzdal princes, is another
confirmation: stone construction in the Galician land was much cheaper than in
Suzdal.
The white-stone Galician architecture, strictly
speaking, be called correctly. Galicians built from different kinds of local
limestone, alabaster, Sandstone, travertine155.
Geology of the Galician land is fundamentally
different from Suzdal. Galich is located near the Carpathians, on the hill, cut
by deep ravines along the bed of the Dniester. On the geological map, shown in
Fig. 4, near the Dniester visible deposits Silurian period - Transnistrian
stone even better than myachkovsky related to a late Carboniferous period. And
in any case, the Galicians were not able to carry construction materials for
So, the stone construction was given Galicians
much easier than suzdalians, and they could lead him under the influence of
Yuri Dolgoruky or, for example, Poland (on Omiani156).
Therefore, we are unable to accept a compromise
version of the parallel construction of the beginning of the fifties of
the XII century in Suzdal and Galich, with the caveat that the influence of
George on vladimirka likely, but the opposite is not.
The Chapter 3, we see that they could build and
independently, exchanging experience" - the Vladimir under the influence
of neighboring Poland and Dolgorukiy - the state, whose authority for a
candidate for the Kyiv table and his descendants - the Grand Dukes of Vladimir
- was more significant.
VIII
It should be noted that such "authoritative
state" were not Volga Bulgaria, and not one of the countries of the
Caucasus, though in fact, in both cases there are arguments "for".
About influence of the Volga (Kama) Bulgaria said
E.E. Golubinsky, citing, in turn, on the Stroganov. Arguments similar to
"Galitskie": stone, masonry and mortar157. And the logic
of this argument is typical of the Church historian of the late XIX century:
according to the tenet of "Orthodoxy, nationality, autocracy" was
less "offensive" to recognize the influence of Muslims and pagans
than Catholics and Protestants.
But Voronin in "the History of Russian art"158 wrote: "the Bulgarian theory" is based on a completely false data on Privoz for Andrew construction of white stone from the Volga Bulgaria, the reason and the hypothesis about coming out and architects".
And in "the Architecture of North-Eastern Russia"159 he leads the arguments Palace in Suvar (X-XI century) was built of brick and white stone buildings appeared only in the XIV century in the ancient city of Great Bulgaria. And the technology stack there was quite different.
Probably the influence of the Bulgarians cannot be denied. In 1152, using lesions Dolgoruky in the South of Russia, they attacked the Suzdal land and besieged the city of Yaroslavl. Perhaps fortress Kideksha, St. George, Pereslavl, Zvenigorod, Dmitrov, Moscow Yuri began to build it under the threat of further promotion of the Bulgarians160.
So to speak about full absence of influence of the Volga Bulgaria for Dolgoruky hardly fair, but this influence is expressed not in the white-stone construction, and in its contribution to the state of "eternal war", in which he remained Dolgoruky (and all Rus ' at that time). In turn, the "eternal war" indirectly influenced the appearance and the historical fate of buildings Dolgoruky, and we will talk about it in the main 4.
Now let's consider another version of the direct influence of the white-stone building Yuri - "Caucasus".
We are talking about the version of F. hull, which V.N. Lazarev quite abruptly called "fantastic"161: Yuri Dolgoruky been influenced by the countries of Transcaucasia.
"For" - stone (but not white), cross circuit, sculptures and heavy drums Caucasian churches. Much in common with buildings Dolgorukiy and his descendants have Jvari monastery (VI-VII century), Echmiadzin (VII century), Svetitskhoveli in Mtskheta and the Church of Bagrat in Kutaisi (XI century).
But there are cons: the remoteness and the lack of a permanent and sustainable political ties Suzdal land (and the whole of Russia) from Transcaucasia.
In Soviet times, have developed a stereotype that Georgia and Armenia are almost our neighbors. But in fact, in the XII century the Caucasus was much more far not only in comparison with the times of the USSR, but also with the times of Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise: on the Volga river and the Kuban settled "wild" Polovtsy. At the end of XI century from the map disappeared Tmutarakan162. Monomah "tamed" (and provisionally) only the Western camp163and Russia has been separated from the Caucasus "field", impassable even for merchants - "wild" Polovtsy were not bound by any ethical standards164. Of course, remained waterways, and occasional contacts have taken place (for example, the second wife of Izyaslav Mstyslavych was Georgian Princess), but about the Caucasus in the Russian Chronicles says rarely, and in times Dolgoruky relations Suzdal land, with the Caucasus countries was much more distant than with the Principality of Galich.
We came to the conclusion that, as in the case of Galicia, in theory, the influence of the Transcaucasian architecture of Suzdal could take place. But the analysis of political and economic practice shows that force Dolgoruky to build temples for ten times higher "estimate" Transcaucasian experience could not less likely than Galitsky.
The maximum that could be - it records that
experience builders Yuri, adjusted for Suzdal climatic conditions and soils.
But the fact of the beginning of the white-stone building Dolgoruky and the continued use of white stone, his descendants did not affect the Caucasus, Bulgaria and Galich.
Probably, it is already possible to stop an enumeration of the regions of Russia and a small adjacent countries - no region, no small country could not induce the princes of the North-Eastern Russia to go on building of white stone and lead him three hundred years. The only States where the Grand princes Vladimir, and then Moscow could watch the "bottom up", there were two empires: the Byzantine and Holy Roman".
But in Byzantium were built of brick or technology "opus mixtum", that is to influence the choice of Dolgoruky white-technology Byzantine experience could not.
So, we can only influence of the "Holy Roman Empire". The experience of the past we can call the European: the stone temple was Romanesque architecture not only Empire (Germany and Italy), but also neighboring France, England and Spain.
Chapter III. Suzdal masters and Romanesque
.
© Sergey Zagraevsky
Chapter I. White stone and brick
Chapter II. Galich, Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria
Chapter III. Suzdal masters and Romanesque
Chapter IV. “The limit of reliability”
Chapter V. Sculpture decoration
To the page “Scientific works”