To the page “Scientific works”
Sergey Zagraevsky
Jury Dolgoruky and ancient Russian white stone architecture
Published in Russian: Çàãðàåâñêèé Ñ.Â. Þðèé Äîëãîðóêèé è äðåâíåðóññêîå áåëîêàìåííîå çîä÷åñòâî. M.: Àëåâ-Â, 2001. ISBN 5-94025-014-9
Chapter I. White stone and brick
Chapter II. Galich, Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria
Chapter III. Suzdal masters and Romanesque
Chapter IV. “The limit of reliability”
Chapter V. Sculpture decoration
Chapter IV.
“The
limit of reliability”
Attention!
The following text
was translated from Russian original by the computer program
and has not yet been
edited.
So it can be used
only for general introduction.
I
At the end of the previous Chapter we touched
upon a very interesting topic. Comparison of size and historical destiny of
white stone churches and pre-and post-Mongol Rus allows to make conclusions
about the limits of building capacity of Russian artists, who worked in the
white stone. These limits are very stable and virtually unchanged since the
time of Yuri Dolgoruky until mid XV century.
Remember again the approximate size of white
stone churches (without pillars, apses and distortion forms), noting not only
the inner space, but also the main engineering indicator of a family's
cross-building - side omphalos (SEC).
Churches Yuri Dolgoruky:
- Kideksha, the
13 x 12 = 156 sq.m, SEC
- Pereslavl, Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral:
13 x 13 = 169 sq.m, SEC
- Vladimir, the
12 x 11 = 132 sq.m, SEC
- Polsky, St. George's Cathedral:
11 x 11 = 121 sq.m, SEC
Temples Of Andrei Bogolyubsky:
- Vladimir assumption Cathedral:
20 x 15 = 300 sq.m, plus 4 porch area of 11 sq.m,
total 344 sq.m, SEC
- Rostov, the assumption Cathedral:
26 x 20 = 520 sq.m, SEC
- Bogolubovo, the Church of the Nativity of the
Theotokos:
13 x 10 = 130 sq.m, SEC
- The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl:
8 x 7 = 56 sq.m, the SEC on average
Temples Of Vsevolod The Big Nest:
- Vladimir Cathedral of the Nativity monastery:
15 x 13 = 195 sq.m, SEC
- Vladimir, Dmitrievsky Cathedral:
14 x 13 = 182 sq.m, SEC
- Vladimir Cathedral "Knyaginin"
monastery:
13 x 12 = 156 sq.m, SEC
The brick buildings of Constantine in the
statistics of the white-stone building, we do not include - brick has a totally
different structural properties.
The largest temples time Yuri Vsevolodovich:
- The Suzdal Nativity Cathedral:
19 x 15 = 285 sq.m, plus 2 porch of 21 sqm, 327
sq.m, SEC
- Nizhniy Novgorod, the Savior Cathedral:
10 x 9 = 90 sq.m, SEC
- Polsky, St. George's Cathedral:
11 x 11 = 121 sq.m, plus 2 on the porch of 17
sq.m and 1 porch of 25 sqm, 184 sq.m, SEC
The largest white stone churches post-Mongol
period of time (until the end of the XV century), the dimensions are known:
- Zvenigorod, the assumption Cathedral "on
the Town":
10 x 10 = 100 sq.m, SEC
- Zvenigorod, the Cathedral of the
Savvino-Storozhevsky monastery:
16 x 11 = 171 sq.m, SEC
- Holy Trinity, the Trinity Cathedral:
18 x 13 = 234 sq.m, SEC
- Moscow, the Cathedral of the Andronikov
monastery:
12 x 10 = 121 sq.m, SEC
- Moscow, the Dormition Cathedral 1472-1474
years:
31 x 32 = 992 sqm, SEC
- Moscow, the Dormition Cathedral 1475-1479 period:
29 x 25 = 725 sq.m, SEC
II
The statistics confirm what we said in paragraph
13 of the main 3: Vsevolod the Big Nest was not trying to build temples, is
considerably more than "ceilings"posed by Yuri Dolgoruky. The inner
space of the SEC and the temples Vsevolod more than in Pereslavl and Kideksha,
only 10-20 %.
This allows us to arbitrarily define
"maximum security" pre-Mongol cross the white stone churches as
follows:
- the inner space of the main volume
(SPLA): up to
- SEC: up to
It may seem strange that we do not enter into the
definition of "maximum security" measures proportions of temples, the
height of the rectangle, arches and drum, the thickness of the pillars, walls
near the floor, walls with arches, etc.
Yes, of course, all this should be taken into
account in the calculations, although the latter would be an order of magnitude
more complicated. But the problem is not the complexity and lack of
information. Most of our churches we don't know the exact height or
quadrangular, no dryer, no arches - in short, nothing but the two parameters
that can be defined by the excavated foundations: the internal space and SEC.
But to determine the extent of structural
soundness enough we have these two parameters - internal space and the SEC. At
about the same proportions of temples other parameters are highly correlated
(or derivative) values.
The assertion about the same proportions may seem
controversial, but look: there is great variation in the proportions of the
Vladimir-Suzdal churches in scale, may affect the reliability?
The spread of this very small, and to prove this
assertion, no need to resort to a geometric analysis of the drawings. In our
research, we can talk much easier: we received two churches, close in size, but
the "polar opposite" of proportions - Transfiguration Cathedral in
Pereslavl and the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. And since both of the
temple stood for eight and a half centuries and are still, we may conclude that
the effect of differences in the proportions of the reliability of the design
is very small.
A size that we have included in the definition of
"maximum security", the reliability of the impact is significant: SEC
correlates with the drum and span arches, and the internal space - and with
these, and all other parameters.
About the thickness of the walls and pillars, we,
unfortunately, in most of our churches as we can only guess. But for all we
know the buildings, except of the Intercession on the Nerl, they range from 1.2
to
Need special consideration, such parameter as the
number of pillars. Large churches in Russia (Suzdal region - the assumption
Cathedral in Vladimir is the assumption in Rostov and the Nativity in Suzdal)
were six pillars. But the introduction of a four-column cross-plan two
additional pillars hardly had some original sacred significance (post factum,
of course, can give symbolic meaning of what you want). Most likely, additional
pillars were an attempt "Basilica" the building of the internal space
- by increasing the length of the temples.
As is known, the length of the Basilica through
the introduction of new pillars could grow many times. But Russia is building
the internal space was shackled Greek-cross plan. If in the Basilica on the
crossing even standing drum, his load was assumed not the pillars and walls.
And in the ancient temples drums were not on the walls, and on the four pillars
and arches created the efforts of spreading the pillars in the horizontal plane
(Fig. 16). Therefore, the role of the arc-boutants played arches aisles, and
the role of buttresses - external walls of the altar apse and the arches.
And when the transition from four pillars of the
temple to the six pillars (Fig. 17) instead of one of the walls were two
pillars, much more subject to deformation under the effect of
"tipping" of efforts in the horizontal plane, structural reliability
is significantly reduced. Installation of extra light drums exacerbated the
problem of "tipping" loads.
Fig. 16. The scheme of distribution of loading on the
drum at the pillars and walls in the four pillars of the plan of the Cathedral.
Fig. 17. The scheme of distribution of the load from
the drum to the pillars and walls in the hypothetical transformation of the
four pillars of the Cathedral in six pillars.
It is seen that two additional pillars are significant
"tipping" the load in the horizontal plane, and the wall behind them
(much more reliable design element) almost unloaded.
Fig. 18. The status of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral
before restoration in the mid-twentieth century (drawing AV Stoletov). Are the
specific destruction of arches and pillars and walls up the difference because
of their spreading out the drum.
Thus, when a cross-plan increasing the number of
pillars leads to the same consequences as the increase of the internal space:
when the same Central chapters six pillars of the temple was less reliable than
four pillars. And the introduction of additional pillars under the dome of the
Byzantine tradition is not allowed.
In the Basilica, where (with rare exceptions)
pillars are only supported on the vaults, the increase in the number of pillars
(building of the temple in length) on the strength of constructions made no
difference. And when determining the reliability of the temple's cross, we see
a very high correlation between the number of pillars and the inner space. We may
conclude that when cross terms of the pillars is a parameter dependent on the
size of the inner space.
Of course, in the Church's cross can be made very
small drum, minimizing the spreading the pillars in the horizontal plane and
avoiding any "Basilica building. But this situation is controlled by the
second parameter, we have chosen to define "maximum security" - SEC.
Consequently, we may assert that for the
definition of "maximum security" cross the white stone churches need
to know only the size of the interior and the dome spaces.
III
To confirm the correctness of our definition of
the parameters "maximum security" (the internal space is to
The Cathedral of the assumption of Andrey
Bogolyubsky in Rostov stood there for 42 years and collapsed. Later it was
rebuilt on the same plan and the previous scale, and he stood less than two
hundred years. Another attempt to restore it, too, ended in failure, and in the
XVI century in its place was built a brick Church.
Speaking in paras. 13-14 mainly about 3 Uspensky
Cathedral of Andrei Bogolyubsky of Vladimir, we have seen in the fidelity
version of NN Voronin that the Church had to build up galleries for burning
wood ties in the fire of 1185272. So, without a fire Cathedral stood
a long time - as we shall soon see, for the white-stone architecture is
characterized by very rapid decay of the wooden ties. And even if the version
Voronin false communication in the fire did not burn, the need of rigging
temple galleries, buttresses, 25 years after the construction is still
indicative of the General unreliability of the design.
Yuri Vsevolodovich, apparently, could not build a
Cathedral in Suzdal smaller reasons Grand prestige - too much rush into the
eyes of a constructive regression compared to the Cathedral Monomakh.
Architects of the early XIII century, most likely knew about the risk of
exceeding the "maximum security" and take possible measures for
strengthening the Church (instead of backing used brickwork273, and
high arches played the role of buttresses).
But in the end the temple of Suzdal Yuri
Vsevolodovich was slightly more durable than the construction of his uncle
Andrew Bogolyubsky, exceeding the limit of reliability: the Cathedral for only
220 years and collapsed274.
In the post-Mongolian time "ceilings"
was slightly exceeded during the construction of the assumption Cathedral in
Kolomna, and there is also not without catastrophe275.
The Cathedral of the Chudov monastery (very
likely that it exceeded the "maximum security"276), stood
for 66 years and from the very dilapidated collapsed277, and
collapsed so that was demolished and replaced by another temple. Naturally, in
such a short time, he could not very "worn out", then, was a lack of
reliability of a design.
Around the same fate befell the Cathedral of the
Simonov monastery (also, probably exceeding a limit of reliability), but not
over 66 years, and in 72 years after construction. "Lightning" in
1476298certainly, could not by itself destroy its top: a lightning
strike in crosses almost every storm.
Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius, and
(though only slightly) more than "ceilings" - the building unique.
N.N. Voronin believed that the slope of the walls, pillars and arches inside
(Fig. 19) had the objective to cause the viewer a sense of perspective and,
consequently, greater height of the building279. But more preferable
sees another explanation: the architects knew what was going on constructive
risk, and built the walls, providing the most even distribution of the load.
Rather, only through such engineering solution Cathedral reached our days
without accidents.
Fig. 19. Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra
(Wealden). Note the sloping walls, playing the role of buttresses.
Size of the Saviour Cathedral in 1290 in Tver, we
do not know. N.N. Voronin on the basis of old descriptions are not extant icons
assumed he was seven-dome and six pillars290. But the seven-headed
Cathedral - the phenomenon in the XIII century is unprecedented and, most
likely, these chapters were represented iconographer arbitrarily.
We, based on the absence of any accidents during
the construction of the Savior Cathedral may assume that its dimensions do not
exceed the "maximum security" (that is, were comparable, for example,
with St. George Cathedral in Yuriev-Polsky), and he, therefore, was four
pillars. The historical fate of the Cathedral is confirmed: only after 100
years it took renewing, but in an emergency condition he came after the
devastating fire in 1616, i.e. through 326 years after construction281.
IV
About the size of the assumption Cathedral
1326-1327 years in Moscow, we can only guess.
H. Wagner, pushing version of comparability
dimensions of the first Moscow assumption Cathedral with built in its place
Cathedral 1472-1474 years, it was recognized that the building of such a huge
building during the year (August 1326 - August 1327) "extraordinary"282.
We would add that such a rapid construction of
another and without catastrophes - and this is not quite typical of the
building, where exceeded a limit of reliability".
In the beginning of XIV century, Moscow was still
a small and wealthy city. In pre-Mongol Russia we have not seen a strong
relation between the status of the Cathedral and its dimensions - for example,
in Galicia, Przemysl, Turov, Belgorod and small southern Russian cities of St.
George and Proske were diocese283but the big six cupolas of the
cathedrals was not. In total, fifteen dioceses great cathedrals had six. But
the relationship between the size of the city and the city's main Cathedral was
straight (only a limited capacity builders - see item 6 of the main 3).
Therefore, it is unlikely that Metropolitan
Peter, who moved to Moscow in early 1320-s284when in the city were
only wooden Church, insisted that the first285 the white-stone
Church, built inexperienced Moscow builders, was comparable in size to the Vladimir
and Rostov cathedrals. In addition, low reliability of the latter was already
known.
VP Vygolov, noting that "the desire to
hyperbolicity dimensions of early Moscow cathedrals of Ivan Kalita, especially
the assumption that looks obviously far-fetched and little resemblance to
reality"286, gave reasons associated with economic
opportunities of Moscow, and also with the fact that in the case of large sizes
1326-1327 period by the architect of the Cathedral 1472-1474 years it would not
have to take as a model the "great and high Church" Vladimir
assumption Cathedral287.
All this leads us to accept the view, K. Romanov
and N. Voronin about the approximate size according to the assumption Cathedral
1326-1327 years to St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polish288 (Fig.
20). Using our terminology, for example: most likely that the Church does not
exceed a limit of reliability". A chronicle evidence that in the early
70-ies of the XV century the Cathedral was "backed tree"289as
we will see in paragraph 12 of this Chapter, may not talk about its weak
structure.
Fig. 20. Combined plans Assumption Cathedral in Moscow
(by K. Romanov). Hatching - 1326-1327 period, dashed line - the Cathedral
1472-1474 years, contour - Cathedral 1475-1479 years.
However, this question remains open. The final
answer will only give serious archaeological research, which in conditions of
functioning of the Kremlin as a governmental residence, unfortunately, is
impossible.
But the construction of the new Cathedral of the
years 1472-1474 is an excellent illustration of the fact that the Russian
masters of the XV century and was unable to exceed the "maximum
security"as defined in the Yuri Dolgoruky.
Building disaster that befell this temple,
regardless of the strength of the earthquake on may 20, 1474, speaks of the
fundamental inability of Russian masters to build a white stone building with
an inner space of about 1000 square meters and the side of the omphalos almost
First, strong, and even more catastrophic
earthquake geologically stable Central Russia is very unlikely.
Secondly, even if there was any tangible earthquake,
the other temples it safely "experienced". Consequently, the
assumption Cathedral was originally built with a very small margin of safety
and hardly able to stand, for example, the nearest big fire.
Thirdly, if the fall unfinished Cathedral was
caused only by an earthquake, it is unlikely that would invite experts from
Pskov, who stated low technical side of the building290.
With the latter, in turn, is not so simple: Ivan
III invited the masters of Pskov, the experts themselves to undertake the construction
of the Cathedral, but they refused, under the very unlikely pretext291.
Refer to "employment at other buildings in Moscow and the Trinity-Sergius
monastery, rejecting the only honorable and lucrative offer great Prince to
build the capital's Cathedral? Most likely, this was only a pretext, and
formal. Just experienced Pskov foresaw the undecidability of the task and
wisely refused the solution.
And then in 1475 for solving engineering
problems was invited Fioravanti. "Activity of Aristotle in Italy is an
activity, not an architect (perhaps with some exceptions), and engineers, with
an outstanding engineer who carried out a series of bold technical solutions,
far ahead of practice at that time. As the renowned engineer, he was invited to
many of the city to solve the most difficult tasks - Venice, Florence, Mantua,
Rome, Naples (SS pod'yapol'skii)292.
Strictly speaking, the technique Fioravanti is
not white stone, and mixed: the most critical structural elements made of brick293.
And yet, despite unprecedented measures to strengthen the temple, "in 1624
threatening drop in the vaults of the Cathedral were taken before a single
brick" and the newly composed taking into account formed in the upper tier
of deformations on the changed picture ("vsparushennoy"
configuration), with the reinforcement of their connected with iron, and with
the introduction of additional arches" (Kavelmaher)294.
V
It is anticipated the question: reliability of
the pre-Mongolian white stone churches, not exceeding a size limit"was
also not very high, and to have survived without substantial changes only
Transfiguration Cathedral in Pereslavl, the Church of the Intercession on the
Nerl and the Dmitrievsky Cathedral. Maybe Suzdal wizard could not build a good,
even a small temples? In paragraph 11 of the main 3 stated that they built
efficiently and reliably, but can you call this construction quality and
reliable?
Indeed, the historical fate of the majority of
the pre-Mongolian churches of Vladimir-Suzdal lands, the size of which does not
exceed a limit of reliability", it is still not enough evidence of their
high durability. Let's see:
- Kideksha, the Church of Boris and Gleb in the
XVII century shifted the vaults, the upper apses and the head;
- Vladimir, the Church of St. George: a fire
struck in 1778;
- Polsky, St. George's Cathedral Yuri Dolgoruky:
dismantled in connection with the construction of a new Cathedral in the
beginning of the XIII century;
- Bogolubovo, the Church of the Nativity of the
virgin: collapsed in 1722;
- Vladimir Cathedral of the Nativity monastery:
dismantled because of its dilapidated condition in the middle of the XIX
century;
- Vladimir, Dmitrievsky Cathedral: in the middle
of the XX century was in emergency condition;
- Vladimir Cathedral "Knyaginin"
monastery: at the turn of the XV and XVI century completely restructured;
- Nizhniy Novgorod, the Savior Cathedral:
dismantled in 1670-ies;
- Nizhniy Novgorod, the Church of Michael the
Archangel: stood up in 1359;
- Polsky, St. George's Cathedral 1230-1234 years:
collapsed in the early to mid XV century.
Two relatively "safe" temple of the
Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Pereslavl and the Church of the Intercession
on the Nerl - in XV-XVIII centuries had suffered many "capital
repairs"295.
What's the matter? Blame it Suzdal builders that
have survived such a small part of the pre-Mongol white stone buildings?
VI
As we saw in paragraph 5 of the main 3, it is not
in the main building material is white stone. In the qualitative sorting it
reliable enough - certainly not compared with bricks, with limestone, used to
build a much more durable cathedrals in Western Europe.
Case and not the solution - in the
Vladimir-Suzdal churches used hardest lime (80% lime binder, much more than in
Kiev296) with a variety of strengthening impurities297.
Case and not in the basement: the depth
throughout Russia ranged from 0.5 to
Fig. 21. The Foundation of the Church of the
Intercession on the Nerl.
The case and not the quality of construction:
fitting white stone blocks were made no worse and often better than in Europe301.
We can select only one possible cause for the low
durability of the temples, which indirectly can be attributed to errors builders
- heavy drumsthat are in the plan's cross created a significant burden
on the pillars with supporting arches and led to the spreading out the walls in
the horizontal plane (see Fig. 16-18).
However, it is unlikely there was the fault of
the builders. In paragraph 1 of the main 3 we talked about the fact that
"towering" temples Dolgorukiy and his descendants was an attempt to
play the "European aspirations of building up.
Therefore, the only risky architectural solution
in the pre-Mongol white stone churches, not exceeding a limit of
reliability", - heavy drums, which made the temples "towering" -
should be attributed to the specifics of the princely order.
But here we are faced with yet another
interesting question. As is known, in Byzantium main purpose of the drum was
the coverage of the temple daylight. Initially (in the early middle ages) drum
and appeared as a Supplement to the dome, as the latter was impossible to do
open.
And even when the actual degeneracy of
cross-schema, when the "sacred" the role of the dome (as in Sophia of
Constantinople) was reduced to the performance of tradition (as in
Constantinople Merelaine302 or Soluneia (Thessalonika) Panagia303),
drum did not lose its main purpose is to skip to the temple more light.
In Kiev304 and Chernigov305
Windows relatively large, and not only drums, but in the walls. A Dolgorukiy
made Windows and loopholes in the walls, and drums.
In the end, in the temples of George, we see a
mere formality not only dome (in paragraph 1 of the main 3 we said that to see
it you have to stand directly under it), but the role of the luminous drum. But
the narrow Windows not only let in a little light. They significantly aggravate
the drum and, consequently, increase the load on the structural elements of
the quadrangle.
VII
E.E. Golubinsky explained Windows-loopholes
climatic conditions in the temples was not furnaces and in winter it was too
cold306. It is difficult to accept. First, the window embrasures
were in the Caucasus307, and in Serbia308, where much
warmer. Secondly, the Windows were windowsill with glasses309.
Kavelmaher voiced version that narrow window
served as protection from thieves310. If it were just about the
Windows in the walls, this version would be theoretically acceptable (although
if you want to expand or scrap of white stone ax narrow window opening slightly
harder than oak windowsill hack). But we are talking primarily about the window
openings drums, where the thieves in any case it was impossible to climb.
It is more likely that Dolgoruky reduced window
for two reasons.
First - all the same craving for romanik. Many
churches in Europe XI-XII centuries just such a window is more like loopholes311only
more often due not to reduce the width and height gain. In any case, creates
the effect of "the Lancet", i.e. the aspiration of the building up,
which prompted George to pull and weight drums.
And to make the drum a greater number of Windows
is not possible to design - white stone piers were to keep a hard white stone
dome. The same applies to the Windows in the walls - Russian masters have not
yet mastered the methods unloading walls, typical of the Gothic. Remarkable
fact: when in the Palace Church hierarchy at the end of the XVII century, broke
choirs were broadened and the narrow Windows, she soon fell312.
But it is very likely that there's a second
reason: the potential need to use the temples as defensive structures.
Something like "the main tower of the castle.
In our time, when most researchers sought to
highlight the liturgical function of temples, this version may seem like a
relic of Soviet times. But as you know, in the understanding of medieval Church
service to God could take and it "militant" form (from the Crusades
to participate in the battle of Kulikovo monks Peresvet and osljabja). Let's
not forget about the function of many fortified monasteries of the XV-XVII
centuries.
And given that the city-fortress Dolgoruky built
under the threat of attacks against the Volga Bulgars, the version of potential
defense in the temples seems quite reasonable. Taking it, we explain:
- availability of Windows arranged not only in
Suzdal, but also in the Caucasus and on the outskirts of Byzantium, where there
were frequent "border conflicts";
- the approximate equality of the external and
internal Windows sockets Suzdal churches (when the goal was missing Windows,
the maximum amount of light, internal socket usually made considerably longer
and larger external - as in the assumption Cathedral Fioravanti313);
- the reason for the construction of churches in
Dolgoruky close to the walls314. What in Pereslavl found no remnants
of transition from the Cathedral to zaborau315that is not what it
says - the transition could take the form of a light bridge, at the siege to be
destroyed.
Of course, no serious assault, no Church could
not resist. In the end, precipitating easy to take a battering RAM and knock
the door. But the basics of martial arts suggests that the construction of the
fortress must not neglect any opportunity to strengthen.
First, it is theoretically possible that hold a
few extra hours - then wait for reinforcements.
Secondly, even a weak citadel able to give Duke
enough protection during the uprising of the urban population.
Third, the presence of the fortress at least a
symbolic citadel need for diplomatic reasons. During the capture of the city
walls enemy, naturally, the head of defense is impossible to negotiate with
rushing crowds of enemy soldiers, so he shut himself up in the citadel and
until the enemy is preparing for its assault has time to negotiate an honorable
surrender.
And since no other strongholds in the fortresses
Dolgoruky was not, the resistance in the temples Yuri was obliged to provide.
Moreover, it is likely that under the dome of
each temple were built (or were held during the siege), wooden platforms for
archers, which could climb the ladder. Anyway, in the Holy Transfiguration
Cathedral of Pereslavl, as in many other Russian churches XI-XV centuries,
under the dome there is a rectangular ledge on which these sites could be based
(Fig. 22).
Fig. 22. The section of the Transfiguration Cathedral
of Pereslavl.
The letter "a" denotes the rectangular ledge
under the dome, which can build wooden platforms for archers.
A shot from the top zakomaras practically do not
interfere. For example, the author of this book was measured, in the Holy
Transfiguration Cathedral of Pereslavl "dead zone" in a hypothetical
shooting from the Windows of the drum is just
In favor of this version and the location of the
temples in the most remote place of the fortress by the river. Palaces of the
Prince and the chamber of governors were too close, and, seeing the
hopelessness of the situation, leaders and their families had a chance to
escape in boats. The river could come help, and bring up provisions. At least
in the summer.
And not in vain in 1237 the Mongols came to
Suzdal in winter they should consider freezing, first, impassable swamps, and
secondly, the rivers, on which the Russians could and quickly transfer troops
to evacuate the military leadership.
VIII
But peretiranie drums alone do not explain the
relatively short life of the pre-Mongolian white stone churches, not exceeding
a limit of reliability. Still, the building stood long enough - and 600, and
700 years, and the Cathedral in Pereslavl with a very heavy drum came to our
days. Design errors, if it was only in them, would have to occur much earlier.
And the problem of heavy drums builders certainly
understood by introducing wooden communications and reinforcing walls, arches
and pillars (compare plans Suzdal churches (Fig. 5), for example, with the plan
of the Cathedral of the Athonite monastery of chilandar317, is shown
in Fig. 23).
Fig. 23. Athos. The plan of the Cathedral of the
Hilandar monastery (XIII - XIV century).
Therefore, it's not just the reels.
On the durability of buildings, built in European
technology, could affect non-European soil - but, as we saw in paragraph 5 of
the main 3, the difference in the soils of Russia and much of Europe with the
construction point of view, unprincipled, besides builders always take into
account the peculiarities of the soil when laying a Foundation. And the
structure of the Vladimir-Suzdal buildings, not exceeding the maximum security",
were so strong, that was kept as a monolith, even landslides, soil under them318.
What else is in the nature of Russia differ from
Europe, more precisely, from the Central regions of the "Holy Roman Empire
- southern Germany and Northern Italy?
Only the climate.
The stones were placed facing in the European
technology - almost dry319. So, to completely prevent the
infiltration of moisture from the outer surface of the walls under the veneer
was impossible. Then came the Mongols in Russia, - however, without the Mongols
of the building for several decades, there were no repair. The roof the roof is
unreliable and difficult to operate, there appeared a leak, and the water fell
under facing not only from the side but from above.
In southern Europe it would not be a serious
problem, since one or two small frost during the winter (3-5 degrees below
zero) can not lead to catastrophic thawing of a laying. In Russia, however,
when severe frosts several times during winter thaws are replaced, this leads
to a loosening of stones. And as for the cellular structure of white stone
water penetrates into the blocks, themselves, cracks appear in them320.
AV century spoke about the problem of
stratification of a laying, namely, that the rubble layer and two facing
(external and internal) are loading their own, which leads to the tendency of
"swelling" of facing and falling stones321.
If we consider the last statement in isolation
from the Russian climate, it's not really fair: Suzdal masters foresaw the
problem of stratification of a laying and successfully solved it, putting
facing stones unworked a face inside that provided excellent coupling with the
wall filling. Coupling was provided and different lengths of stones that
different inquiries into the middle rubble layer322.
But as soon as we begin to analyse the behaviour
of the half-rubble masonry in the Russian climate, it turns out that the water
that falls into the cracks of the roof and walls, penetrates between facing and
backing and in the frost "removes" the one from the other. In
addition, the moisture in the wall "sucked" and below.
Percolate leads to fast rotting wooden ties,
which, in turn, exacerbates the problem of spreading the walls with heavy drums
(Fig. 18).
In the Vladimir-Suzdal region furnaces in the
temples was not323 and they could only dry the moisture that falls
in the cracks codes. But with a good roof last is not a serious problem, and
the outer lining of the furnace can't help.
In principle, the higher moisture resistance
temples could be achieved with the help of their coating. AI Skvortsov rightly
pointed out that in the pre-Mongolian time often were plastered vaults324
and fragments of walls, intended under frescoes325.
But with the assumption Ahistorical326
that while whitewashing, and some murals, was "routine", one cannot
agree: then lost the sense of self and the white-stone building, as we saw in
paragraph 9 1 main, much cheaper and technologically it would be built of
brick, and then plastering, paint or whitewash.
It is much more likely that paint was still
fragmented, and whitewashing the walls without plastering) began already in the
post-Mongol period, and it is intended not to moisture protection temples, and
"cosmetic repair". A whitewash is much worse protects the walls from
moisture, than plaster.
We see the "logical spiral": if built
of brick, the building would be moisture resistant and therefore more durable. Brick,
plastered, thereby achieving even greater moisture resistance. And in the case
of white stone, this spiral is untwisted in the opposite direction: it is
sensitive to moisture white-stone laying still and not covered with plaster.
MA Il'in, stating the fact that at the end of the
XV century white stone as a building material has been replaced by brick, it
was specified that the stone is sometimes preferred for masonry walls and
vaults of the basement because of better resistance to moisture327.
Indeed, at zero temperature white stone -
limestone, "obliged" to lie in the ground - much more resistant to
moisture than brick. But the white-stone masonry churches Dolgorukiy and his
descendants, as we have just seen, in the Russian climate is much less moisture
resistance than brick.
In defense of the Yuri Dolgoruky, who began to build a "European", except to say that anticipate this behavior is the half-rubble masonry in Russian conditions hardly anyone was capable of. If Russia and had experience with a white stone, it was in Galicia, where the climate is quite European.
IX
Most likely, we cannot speak about any stable features of the influence of climate on the Vladimir-Suzdal white stone temples, depending on their size, architectural forms or location. There is only one relationship, not a new one: the better the care of the temple, so it is durable.
And in the Russian climate good care of white stone buildings was particularly important, but it was not and could not be in the conditions and the Mongol invasion, and years of time of Dmitry semaki, and the time of Troubles, and centuries-old Russian mismanagement. Much depended on the "force majeure"-fires and hurricanes, and the "subjective factors" - unsustainable superiors or churchwardens, at the time not noticing leak roof.
And so it happened that some churches have deteriorated and were dismantled (or even hit) through 500-700 years after the construction, while others survived.
The exception was a small Church of Michael the Archangel in Nizhny Novgorod, for only 150 years. But this temple was the only case in the Vladimir-Suzdal architecture, when the foundations were not brought to the mainland soil and were only covering loam. N.N. Voronin believed that this was the cause of brief "life" Church329. It is difficult not to agree, since the first "model" the Cathedral was the Savior, and the second temple city of Nizhny Novgorod, in the far outskirts of Suzdal land, away from the Prince's eyes, the builders could "save".
But there was one exception: the St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, who along with the Trinity chapel "razvalilis all to the ground"330 after a very short historical period - approximately 200 years after it was built, in the early to mid XV century.
Approximately then collapsed Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal, but there is more or less clear - it exceeded a limit of reliability". As for the St George's Cathedral, this situation looks strange, and it should consider more.
X
We will not discuss here the reconstruction of the original forms of the St George Cathedral, which is engaged and N.N. Voronin (Fig. 24), and H. Wagner (Fig. 25), and AV century (Fig. 26). Kavelmaher noted several shortcomings in the work of all these researchers, in terms of reproduction of architectural forms preferred reconstruction AV Stoletov331.
Fig. 24. St. George's Cathedral. Reconstruction Voronin.
Fig. 25. St. George's Cathedral. Reconstruction Of Wagner.
Fig. 26. St. George's Cathedral. Reconstruction AV Stoletov.
But to investigate the causes of fragility of the Cathedral importantly, and in the reconstruction of AV Stoletov we can see if not stepped arches and tower" Voronin and Wagner, it is still very heavy drum. So, in any case, the load on the structural elements of the quadrangle of the St George Cathedral has been increased.
However,
we see and like buttresses - high arches, capable, if not completely extinguish
raspor walls, to ameliorate the situation. In Pereslavl, where the drum was
hardly much better, chapels were not there. And, given their increased the side
of the omphalos in the Holy Transfiguration Cathedral
Consequently, the fall of the St George Cathedral was unlikely to be caused only by a heavy drum. But there was another factor that can play a role in the historical fate of the Church - that local Prince Svyatoslav "be master of himself"332.
N.N. Voronin challenged the validity of the message of the chronicler, referring to the fact that the originator of the Tver arch could visit St. George's, where his eye had caught the modern Cathedral of the inscription on the wall of the temple, reporting on the targets set by Svetoslav some "cross", and from this the chronicler made wrong conclusions333.
Kavelmaher, proving that the inscription on the act of Svyatoslav in ancient times was in the Trinity chapel, in parallel substantiated and that the chronicler couldn so grossly mistaken and had other data about the authorship of Svyatoslav against George's Cathedral334. This VV kavelmaherom it was concluded that "the architect, who elevated the building, the artist-bearer of ornaments and organizer of the farm was a churchwarden of the Cathedral, the son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, Yuryev Prince Svyatoslav"335.
In principle, one of these "titles" - architect, artist or organizer - alone would be enough for the chronicler could rightly say Svyatoslav: "be the master himself. But in favor of the version that the architect was the Prince himself (i.e. Amateur) said the fact that St. George's Cathedral for only about two hundred years.
Apparently, we are dealing with the same problem, which is already considered in connection with the invitation by the architect Andrei Bogolyubsky of Frederick Barbarossa: if the Imperial architect built the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and Rostov, and you attempt to exceed the "maximum security", valid for Russian artists, he created quite unreliable design.
And in respect of Svyatoslav as an architect, we can say: the Prince, raising the Cathedral of St. George was unable to provide the necessary reliability of the temple even if it "acceptable" size. Perhaps, Svyatoslav, overestimating their abilities, refused the services of professional architects and made some mistakes in construction and masonry walls, vaults or arches - we can only guess.
Thus, there are already two factors that, taken together, could significantly reduce the "life" even potentially robust design of the St George Cathedral: heavy drums and non-professional architect.
And yet, as we shall see, what happened to the temple in the early to mid XV century, can hardly be called a disaster.
K. Romanov believed that it was a disaster, similar to the fall of the Suzdal Cathedral - hit the head and vaults, pulling him part of the walls. This view was supported by N.N. Voronin356, and H. Wagner337, claiming that VD Yermolin "extremely carefully treated to restore the ruins of ancient buildings"338.
Kavelmaher adheres to this about a completely different position, believing that it could collapse only the head, possibly, not entirely. The evidence of survivors in the interior of white stone reliefs339. But then the Cathedral stood without a dome for many years, facing deteriorated from sprouted trees and the Russian climate, and this, according to Kavelmahera, gave Ermolino formal right to disassemble the top of the Cathedral and collect it again.
Unlike Ermolin - Saviour of the sculptural decoration, which gathered the Church from the wreckage (interpretation Voronin and Wagner), Yermolin in the interpretation Kavelmahera appears a kind of barbarian, not doujinshis at dismantling fix the initial position of the stones and the right to reproduce it.
The truth probably lies somewhere between these two polar points of view. We will present our own vision of the situation: as correctly observed Kavelmaher, initially, in whole or in part, fell only the head, and the Cathedral stood in this way for many years. Water gets under the cladding, and the corrosive influence of climate on the white-stone building quickly bore fruit: collapsed exterior cladding is on the scale mentioned Voronin and H. Wagner. This gave the chronicler right to assert that the Cathedral and the chapel "razvalilis all to the ground"340.
Therefore unlikely VD Yermolin not understand the value of sculptural decoration, groundless examining some of wall-to-columnar zone, and some - to the cap341.
But Kavelmaher absolutely right in saying that the crash of St George's Cathedral to say is not entirely justified.
Therefore, we can say with reasonable certainty: all pre-Mongolian churches, not exceeding a size limit"is defined in the time Dolgoruky has high structural reliability, and if dropped, then only under the devastating impact of climate multiplied by traditional Russian mismanagement. And St. George's Cathedral was no exception, but its destruction was accelerated very heavy drum and unprofessional architect.
XI
Turning to the post-Mongol times, once again recall the historical fate of the white stone building, the size of which were close to "maximum security"as defined in the Yuri Dolgoruky:
- Tver, the Savior Cathedral 1290: rebuilt in XVII century;
- Moscow, the Dormition Cathedral 1326-1327 years: in 1472 in its place, began the construction of a new temple;
- Moscow, the Church of the Saviour on the Bor: stood up 1527;
- Moscow, the Cathedral of the Archangel: in 1505 disassembled "for the sake of disrepair"342;
- Moscow, the Church-tower of St John Climacus: stood up 1505343;
- Moscow, the Cathedral of the Epiphany monastery for "Mart": rebuilt after a fire in 1684;
- Moscow, the Cathedral of the Annunciation: in 1482 "pochasha pulls, top snyasha lubem nakryla"344;
- Moscow, the Church of the Nativity of the Theotokos in the Moscow Kremlin: the top collapsed in 1479;
- Mozhaisk, Nikolsky Cathedral: stood up to the XIX century;
- Mozhaisk, the Church of Joachim and Anna: demolished in the XIX century;
- Zvenigorod, the assumption Cathedral "on the Town": continue;
- Zvenigorod, Sava's Cathedral-Storozhevsky monastery has been preserved;
- Staritsa, the Cathedral of the Archangel and the Church of St. Nicholas: destroyed in the time of Troubles;
- the village of Gorodnya Tver region, the Church of the Nativity: in General, preserved;
- Kamenka village Naro-Fominsk district, St. Nicholas Church: in General, preserved;
- Moscow, the Cathedral of the ascension monastery: dismantled in 1516 "for the sake of disrepair"345;
- Moscow, the Cathedral of the Andronikov monastery: the top hit in the fire of 1812.
XII
Immediately attracts attention soon - within 100-200 years - the destruction of the majority of post-Mongol white stone churches, built in the fourteenth and early fifteenth century within the city walls of Moscow. But the size of these buildings do not exceed the "maximum security" and, therefore, implies a much longer life.
N.N. Voronin rightly pointed out that even with the "pre-revolutionary times" there is a stereotypical view of the history of the architecture of this time as a time of deep depression and regression caused by the Mongol defeat346. But, clearly proving the illegality of such a stereotype, it was proposed as an alternate version of "growing pains"347in fact recognized the same decline of architecture, only "progressive".
Kavelmaher, Dating Kolomna Church on the site of ancient Settlement" the first half of the XIV century, said her rudeness of the white-stone laying and also makes the conclusion about a certain decline of architecture348.
But now we're not talking about aesthetics, but about the structural soundness of the temples. Rudeness masonry and unreliability design is not the same, because churches in the villages of Gorodnya and Kamenskoye (and in some cases even "Gorodische" the Church in Kolomna) finally reached our days.
And we may assume that the reliability of the first post-Mongol temples built during Yuri and Ivan Danilovich, was at least not lower than the first temple Dolgoruky. After all, Moscow masters not mastered the new construction equipment and did not attempt to exceed the already known "maximum security". A building skills, as noted Voronin, passed from generation to generation, the benefit of building and repair of churches in Vladimir, Tver and Moscow lands practically did not stop349.
But in parallel in research Voronin traced and other position that affect its variants of reconstruction of the last pre-Mongolian and the first post-Mongolian churches: he gave unpreserved temples stepped arches and Gothic tower-shaped top, making the conclusion that low constructive reliability of such endings caused rapid destruction of the temples350.
In fact, by Voronin we also see an attempt to define "maximum security", which consists not only in the back and side of the omphalos, and in supporting archs: NN Voronin, emergency disaster had expected, those temples where arches were elevated (hence, the top - "towering"). Accordingly, step arch and "Gothic" top assumed in the first assumption Cathedral of Moscow351, The Nativity Cathedral in Suzdal and the assumption Cathedral in Rostov beginning of the XIII century, and in brick churches of Yaroslavl352. About reconstruction of NN Voronin on the same model of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky we have already mentioned in paragraph 10 of this Chapter.
In principle, the reconstruction of temples in the "Gothic" style consistent with the trends of convergence with Europe, Russia, and this confirms the possibility of a stepped arches - if not in the pre-Mongol, the post-Mongol period.
But against the allegations of lack of reliability of these structures have a number of arguments.
First, enable brick churches of Yaroslavl in historical destinies of white stone building and do on this basis, any General conclusions about their appearance seems to be inappropriate due to the huge differences in the design features of brick and white stone.
Secondly, as we have seen, is preferred reconstruction of the St George Cathedral on AV Stoletov supporting arches at the level sets aisles353.
Third, the first Rostov Cathedral of Andrei Bogolyubsky, who had neither high arches, or "towering" top (but exceeding a limit of reliability), fell even faster Cathedral of the beginning of the XIII century, standing not even 178 years, and 42 years.
Fourth, the Cathedral of the Andronikov monastery, which had higher arches (see Fig. 9), but not exceeding a limit of reliability, some masters Dolgoruky, stood for a long time (about four years), and collapsed due to "force majeure" - the fire of 1812.
Fifth, the vaults of aisles in the case of high arches are loaded not only from the side (as in the "classic" scheme shown in Fig. 16), but from above. Therefore, stepped arches gives a more even distribution of load on the drum at the quadrangular elements (and, consequently, their increased structural strength)than the "classic" scheme - with supporting arches at the level sets aisles.
So, if the assumption Voronin about the "towering" completion of some of the temples of XIV-XV centuries, and true, then this conclusion did not significantly influence their reliability and durability.
Thus, the presence or absence of high arches and "Gothic" top did not clarify the question of why the historical fate of the first Moscow churches was so short.
We have already seen that case and not in the poor quality of construction. Case and not in the lack of proper care for the Church - pre-Mongolian churches, not exceeding the maximum security", stood for much longer, despite years of neglect under the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
XIII
Apparently, the first Moscow churches destroyed what they were erected in the centre of the future capital of a unified Russian state and quickly stopped "to meet the objectives of the" growing city and the growing great power.
Naturally, any idea about the monuments of architecture in the XV-XVI centuries were not available, and as soon as the financial possibilities of the temples, under the pretext of "disrepair" demolished and in their place to build something more "prestigious".
As is known, the concept of "decay" is very loose. Moreover, sometimes the "decay" is achieved by artificial means, first in many years there is a deliberate savings on the repair, and then requesting funds for a complete rebuilding of the temple, in fact, deteriorated. Major construction has always been an inexhaustible source of unjust enrichment.
Perhaps, the only true catastrophe can be considered the drop top with the Church of the Nativity of the virgin in 1479354 and then there is a suspicion that the Church is simply not repaired properly after the "accident" 1454 and 1473 years and brought before the fall.
And all the other "short-lived" white stone temples of Moscow XIV and XV centuries (the assumption, Archangel's and Annunciation cathedrals, the Church of the ascension monastery, the Church of our Saviour on the Bor, Church-belfry of St John Climacus)likely to suffer the fate of "artificial ageing".
On the outskirts of Moscow temples were less likely to be victims of ambition of the secular and ecclesiastical authorities, and stood for a long time. The Cathedral of the Epiphany monastery for "Mart" stood for almost 400 years and died in a fire, and the Cathedral of the Andronikov monastery albeit with a loss, but reached our days.
Conclusions on "special Metropolitan conditions" are confirmed by the fact that the fate of the provincial post-Mongol white stone churches is no different from the fate of the pre-Mongolian, after the rise of Moscow, too caught up in the province. The difference in their historical destiny (stand 300, 400, 500 years or longer) played a role only "force majeure" (fires and hurricanes) and "subjective factors" in the form of negligent churchwardens. For example, in Mozhaisk XV century temples stood up to the XIX century, and in Zvenigorod, they stand still.
Everything said about the "maximum security" confirms the conclusion that we made in paragraph 11 chief 3: Suzdal masters in the middle of the XII century efficiently and reliably fulfilled "terms of reference" Yuri Dolgoruky (construction in the European white-engineering with a minimum of neat solution and masonry) and laid the basis for high-quality and reliable construction in this same technique for another three hundred years. The relatively low durability of the temples built and they and their descendants were not their fault.
XIV
We still have one question that is associated with white stone building: why, despite its high cost and low-tech, it has survived in Russia for so long? Moreover, in the post-Mongolian time a white stone not only not surrendered its positions, but also strengthened them: since the beginning of the XIV until mid XV century, not a single Church in the Moscow Principality was built of brick.
Hardly
the princes of Moscow Yuri and Ivan Danilovich, as well as their descendants
were so "unfettered in the media, so they didn't care from which to build.
Let in Moscow white stone had to carry not the 500, and for
A striking example is the construction of the first half of the XIV century "Gorodische" Church (and possibly the Dormition Cathedral in Kolomna355, which in 1307 was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Moscow356. Probably, these temples are built yet Yuri Danilovich357. At this time in Moscow itself has not been a single major temple, and all the resources seem to have been thrown to "approve" the first major conquered the city.
Means of Yuri Danilovich was catastrophically low, and are unlikely to have increased in the first year of the reign of Ivan Kalita, when in Moscow, the first assumption Cathedral began to be built not of brick and white stone.
The technical transition to a brick no difficulties have been presented. Let not the real brick Italian technology, "brought" Fioravanti380but at least "good old" plinthite.
What is of white stone with Dmitry Donskoy in 1367 were built walls of the Kremlin, has its own reasons, is fundamentally different from the motivation of white stone temples that time. As is known, the construction of walls is always done as quickly as possible, because at that time the city unarmed in front of potential adversaries. But that potential adversaries (in this case - the Horde and Lithuania) strong and dangerous, says the fact the decision to build new capacity.
So, just don't have time to learn the technology of production of bricks and built a long-proven and practically inexhaustible myachkovsky quarries, regardless of one's means.
But the construction of churches could "put off" at least several months required for the development of brick technology. Why Moscow princes did not stop (or at least not "pushed"), the white-stone building? Is it difficult to build several furnaces for firing bricks?
Apparently, there were two reasons.
Let's start with the first - political: in the Tatar yoke of white stone churches were to be an element of the state ideology, to abandon all of which meant "lose face" to Europe.
And so, being "ulus" Horde, Russia ceased to be considered European courts as an equal partner359. Byzantium at that time did not constitute any meaningful power in the political arena (for example, in 1371 Emperor John Paleologos, was arrested in France for non-payment of personal debts Venetian merchants360). Therefore, all hope of returning Russia to the "civilized world community" have been associated only with Europe.
The second reason is, paradoxically, economic, referring not only to civilized forms of the economy, and to what nowadays is called "lobbying". The thing is that too many influential people, one way or another were connected with the process of breaking, handling and delivery of white stone, and for them the transition to cheaper and technological brick meant depriving a large part of income. One can imagine, for example, and what funds dispensed to the Prince of the army Teamsters, and the fact that the considerable part of these funds ended up in the pockets of "intermediaries".
XV
Most likely, these same two reasons happened and fairly rapid transition to a brick at the end of the reign of Basil II and the reign of Ivan III.
First - the same political: in Europe at that time began to build brick everywhere, it was already time Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and Bramante (1444-1514)361.
The second - the same economic, but with the opposite sign": Basil II and Ivan III, strengthening autocracy, and fought with excessive corporate autonomy, and with "waste of public money"362. Consequently, the influential advocates of white stone technology, have lost the opportunity to refer to the European experience, could not have success. They were only references to "tradition", but public concerns have outweighed. Capital construction has acquired a mass character, and the use of white stone became too heavy a burden for the Treasury.
Apparently, the "Swan song" of the political influence of the defenders of the white stone was the assumption Cathedral, the walls of which even Fioravanti was forced to build a "traditional" manner. But it was already the end - at least in the capital of white-stone architecture has become a rare phenomenon.
In principle, this could complete the book, we examined the motivation and the creators and followers, and "gravediggers" building of white stone. But we have stayed pending another essential element of the white-stone architecture - the sculptural decoration of churches. It also contains trends of the era before us, and they need to stay by themselves.
Chapter V. Sculpture decoration
.
© Sergey Zagraevsky
Chapter I. White stone and brick
Chapter II. Galich, Caucasus and Volga Bulgaria
Chapter III. Suzdal masters and Romanesque
Chapter IV. “The limit of reliability”
Chapter V. Sculpture decoration
To the page “Scientific works”